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The general predominance of Ugrids all over the
American continent does not solve issues of its racial anthropogenesis
because Algonquian buffalo-hunters and Andean megalith-builders were
surrounded by dozens of other Eurasian races of equal import and interest.
The tribes of buffalo-hunters prevailed in the grassland prairies of the
Plains, lived in dome-shaped wigwam-tents, and buried their dead in
cupolar mounds. They formed a dominant ethnicity in the eastern central part
of North America but their adventurous expeditions ranged as
far as Mexico and the Peruvian
Andes. Eickstedt called them Silvids because they partly inhabited also the
Eastern Woodlands but their genuine heartland lay in the Plains, so it is
reasonable to rename them as Planids. Owing to their ethnic identity with
Algonquian tribes and the Algic family, their justifiable racial term may
also read as ‘Algids’ or ‘Algonquinds’.
Silvids. Current usage of raceonyms
does not respect ethnic groupings and tends to obscure somatic phenotypes by
geographical catchwords. So the dominant ethnic group of Algonquian
buffalo-hunters usually hides out under the label of the racial category of
Silvids. It owes etymology to the Latin word silva
for ‘forest, tree’ and established its usage in reference to the Northeastern Woodlands. This territory was
inhabited by Central
Algonquian and Siouan speakers but its term is more suitable
for the subgroup of the Sioux. The droves of buffalos did not live in forests
but indulged in the prairies of the Great
Plains. The term Silvid (Homo
sapiens colombicus) was originally coined
by Egon von Eickstedt but it should be
replaced by the more appropriate designation of Planids (from Latin plan
‘plain’), because the central core of Algonquian hunters had the most
abundant distribution in the Plains.
Appalachids. Another subrace of
Silvids is formed by the Appalachids, who settled down in the eastern
Atlantic areas around the Appalachian Mountains. Siouan Silvids
and Caddoan Appalachids were both exposed to frequent raids of Algonquian
Planids but their stocks had developed from heterogeneous roots. Owing to
longer dolichocephalous heads, thinner bodies and sturdy chins, Biassuti and
Eickstedt designated them as Pre-euripidi ‘Pre-Europids’. The concept of Silvids becomes a
controversial term if it is interpreted as a superordinate category
comprising Planids and Appalachids. In fact, Algonquian Planids, Siouan
Silvids and Caddoan Appalachids were independent and heterogeneous racial
varieties but Algonquian Planids penetrated into neighbouring territories and
exposed them to the convergent impact of Algic tribes.
Atlantids vs. Pacifids. Serious
efforts to redress basic types of categorial labels should take into account
also alternative terms domesticated in Eastern Europe. The Soviet anthropologists
V. P. Alexeev and G. Debets emphasised a differential approach to
categorial labels and preferred to term Silvids as ‘Atlantic race’. They
agreed with the traditional German Rassenkunde by opposing the eastern
Atlantic Silvids to the western Pacifids, whose seats were spread all over British
Columbia and the western coasts of North America. Their group
suffers from similar imperfections as that of Silvids. It blends into one
mush Tungusoid fishermen (Salish, Haida, Bella Coola, Nootka tribes) with
Athabaskan Lappids, who built sauna sweathouses and lived in semi-dugouts
called barabaras. The chain of Amero-Tungids led from Salish peoples
in British Columbia to Uto-Aztecan
tribes that arrived in Mexico and continued
further in the southward direction. On the other hand, Athapaskan hordes left
numerous colonies in Arizona and California. They struck
roots as Arizonids and Californian Pacifids.
Uto-Aztecans. In the western
regions of the continent the mobile roaming camps of Algonquian buffalo-hunters
neighboured on riverside plantations of Uto-Aztecan fishers. They were
remarkable for the Tungusoid Y-haplogroup C-M217, referred to also as C2 or
C3. Since their genetic affiliation is corroborated also by the
characteristic conic tepee tents with the wreath of crossed poles at the top,
it is admissible to classify them as an Amero-Tungusic faction descending
from Siberian Tungids. Unfortunately, their continuous migration routes were
interrupted and broken into two parts distinguished as Pacifids and Sonorids.
The main core of Sonorids was formed by Uto-Aztecan tribes, who shared the
Aztecan indulgence in lake-dwellings on wooden platforms supported by pillars
rammed into the lake bottom.
Centralids. Another complex of
incompatible ethnicities is compressed under the racial label of the Centralids. They owe their name to their seats in Central
America and to the intermediary position
separating advanced agricultural civilisations in the south from indigenous
tribes in the north. Their northern promontories were occupied by Pueblids
remarkable for living in fortified pueblos. Their architecture
resembled the style of oriental Elamitoids, who tilled the land in oases
surrounded by arid wilderness and had to defend their houses by thick walls
without windows. In the south a prominent standing among their subgroup was
held by populations of the Isthmids, whose term derived from the Latin root isthmus
‘strait’. It is now applied to the narrow
straits of the Mesoamerican isthmus. Both groups showed mixed caste-divided
populations, their superstratum was akin to Olmec and Mayan megalith-builders
while the lower classes recruited from common field cultivators. Their ethnic
customs seem to be compatible with oriental Elamitoid traditions and the b-plural
language group.
Margids. The tribes of
Californian Margids were given their name by E. von Eickstedt because they
occupy a marginal position on the western Californian coast. Yet their group
includes also similar types spread on Floridian coasts and the eastern
margins of America. These
peripheral sites differ them from Centralids, who occupy central parts of the
continent. The main subgroups of Margids include Sonorids, who live in the Sonora desert of
southern Arizona, Mexicids based
around the Gulf
of Mexico, and Californids with short stature and
low skulls. The Sonorids encompass the tribes of Seri, Yuma and Pima. The
semi-extinct Californids include the Yuki, Wappo and Pomo and the Mexicids
consist chiefly from the Otomi and Pima. A brief look at their ethnographic
peculiarities demonstrates that the concept of Margids is an artificial name
for several incompatible groupings: scattered remains of Uto-Aztecan
Tungusoid fishers, short-sized Lappids with semi-subterranean earthen lodges,
sauna sweathouses and cremation burials, and Palaeo-Negrids with fringed
aprons akin to the Amazonian Tupí-Guaraní. Amerindian racial groups are
surveyable in greater detail as follows:
Map 19. R. Biasutti’s distribution of Amerindian
races
Eskimids – an
umbrella term for northernmost racial groups living inside the
Polar Circle; their constitution is believed to have arisen as a result of adapting
to the cold arctic climate. Their
description involves some Turcoid traits such as short thickset figure,
longer heads, short extremities, and Y-haplogroup R*-M173. On the other hand,
it is notable for Ugroid and Palaeo-Siberian features such as reddish brown
skin, very narrow nasal opening, large head and strong muscular figure. R.
Biasutti classified them as Eschimidi, Lundman coined the term ‘Sibiriderna’.
Silvids –
tribes
with a mesoskelic trunk, tall stature and mesomorph constitution. Their cranial
indices are mesocephalic, in the east they exhibit dolichocephaly peculiar to
Pre-Europids or Proto-Europids. The leptorrhine nose is narrow but long and
strong. Its shape is curved in a convex profile. The skin is light brown but
tends to manifest a reddish hue. It is colouring that ensured Amerindians the
nickname of ‘redskins’. Silvids occupy a larger domain in peripheral woodland
areas. They are related to the
Sioux, Mohicans, Iroquois and Delaware.
Atlantids – the efforts to separate the Sioux and Iroquois from Algonquian Silvids made the
French anthropologist H. V. Vallois class them as an independent variety of Nord-Atlantique
race. In his survey of human
races he referred to their group as a variety of longer and higher skulls and
taller and thinner constitution. This usage was soon taken over by the
Austrian paleoanthropologist Albet Drexel, who proposed to speak of North Atlantids.
Planids – inhabitants of the grassland prairies of the Great
Plains, whose subsistence was based on hunting
bisons. Their typical tribes were Algonquians comprising the Arapaho, Blackfoot, Cheyenne, Ojibwe/Chippewa and Cree. Their cranium was
large-headed, mesocephalic, orthocranic or chamaecranic. The long and
prominent nose was leptorrhine with a convex profile. G. Neumann proposed to call them Lakotids while R. Biasutti preferred the
designation of Dakota race.
Appalacids – a
racial variety of Pre-Europids or Proto-Europids that had an ethnic core in
Siouan, Iroquois and Caddoan tribes. It was remarkable for tall stature and robust bodies. Their figure was
mesoskelic and mesomorph. A remarkable feature was seen in dolichocephalic
and hypsicranic skulls as well as weak cheekbones and leptorrhine noses.
Athabaskids – a
racial group of Athabaskan/Athapascan Na-Dene tribes that landed on the
American continent as late as 200 AD. They were Amero-Lappids remarkable for
a smaller and shorter cranium and shorter body stature. Their shorter legs
contrasted with longer arms. B. Lundman called them Deneids in order to coordinate them with E.
Sapir’s Na-Dene language group. In our opinion Deneids are Uto-Aztecan
Amero-Tungids crossing the plantations of Athabaskan Amero-Lappids.
Arawakids –
Athabaskans were genetically associated with Hokan Californids and Arawaks in
Venezuela. The
latter were associated with the Negrito of Southeast Asia by customs of
manufacturing blowing pipes, blowguns and poisoned arrows for hunting
rainforest birds, hares and rhodents.
Pacifids – a
racial variety that inhabits American western regions along the coasts of the
Pacific Ocean. It often gains
living by fishing and gives preference to seaside or riverside settlements.
The traditional dwelling was a tall tepee tent with crossed poles. Its hair was dark and straight. The large jaws were accompanied
by thin lips. The skull was brachycephalic but this feature may be due to
intermingling permeation and vicinity with Athabaskid. The same somatic
traits can explain their short legs and long arms.
Sonorids – classified as a subgroup of Margids and named
after the Sonora desert (Seri, Yuma, Tlapaneco,
Papago, Pima). They had a tall stature with meso- or macroskelic
constitution, mesocephalic cranial indices and moderately hypsicranic heads.
Their black hair was straight and their skin colour varied from
yellowish-reddish hues to dark brown shades.
Margids – phenotypes
with long skulls and prominent supraorbital arches. The skull was long and supraorbital arches were
outstanding. Their face was broad but low, the nose was relatively wide and
low-rooted owing to the high Palaeo-Negroid admixture in their blood.
Andids – a racial variety of militant conquerors that got its name after the Andean mountains. It was spread in
Peruvian and Bolivian highlands. Mountainous heights were responsible for
strong and large chest, Mongoloid heritage was noticeable in high prominent
cheekbones, epicanthus and narrow eyes. The hair was straight, the mouth was
wide and the chin was sturdy. A typical Algonquian, Quechuan and Aymaran
feature was recognised in the long hooked nose.
Amazonids – a
typical race of tropical rainforests in the Amazonian river basin. Its
physiognomy preserved some archaic traits of Palaeo-Negroid stocks in
medium-long and dolichocephalous heads, high noses and nasal indices. Its
name was proposed by Renato Biasutti, recommended by J. Imbelloni but refuted by Egon von Eickstedt and
Salvador Canals Frau, who mentioned them as Brasilids. Their considerable adstratum
concerned Arawak Lappids, who shot poisoned arrows from blowing pipes and were
consanguine with the Negrito in Southeast Asia.
These Arawaks had a hand also in the high occurrence of short thick-set and sturdy figures, matronism
and female lumbar lordosis. The genuine
Amazonids had broad and steep foreheads, displayed weak cheekbones and lacked
also other characteristic Mongoloid features. Their migration routes spanned
from British
Columbia to the
Californian Margids and linked them also with allies among Isthmids.
Pampids – Patagonian race of llama-breeding pastoralists encompassing the
Puelche, Tehuelche and Charrúa tribes.
There are described as mesocephalic or moderately brachycephalic types with
mildly hypsicranic tendencies. Their figure is medium tall, the hair is
straight and the skin is brown.
Lagids or Lagoids – a dolichocephalic and eventually hyperdolichocephalic race of
Littoralids concentrated in East Brazil around Lagoa
Santa and the Jê macro-family. It is classified as Pre-Europids but due
to substratum of Palaeo-Negrids it exhibits large supraorbital ridges, deep
set eyes and high sexual dimorphism.
Huarpids – the variety of Lagids and shell
midden Littoralids on West Chillean coastline
beaches.
Table 11. The survey of Amerindian races
Map 23. The architectural typology of Amerindian
races
One of the most reliable criteria in solving ethnic identity is seen
in popular architecture and folk costume designs. They withstand fleeting
ephemeral fashions and survive for many millennia. For anthropologists they
offer only facultative cultural markers but their testimony is as convincing
as anthropometric indices. This is why Table 15 attempts to confront races
and ethnic groups with tribal dwellings. Additional evidence on types of
human abodes and shelters is summed in their regional typology and
distribution depicted in Map 23. Current methods of ethnology and
anthropology base their foundations on the classification of language
families acknowledged by the highly-respected authorities of comparative
linguistics. Its taxonomic considerations are, however, mostly built on
comparing cognates in the lexical substance retrieved in neighbouring tongues
and dialects. A serious warning is uttered by authors who argue that a lot of
lexical cognates arose as loan-words and reveal only short-range affinity.
Better results of the mid-range scope are supplied by population genetics and
its study of chromosomal genomes. Surprisingly enough, the most convincing
guide in quest for long-range and long-term affinities looms in architectural
ethnology and the design of folk vestment.
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The anthropological composition of Amerindian
peoples is found in the optimal state of relative integrity and purity
because its categorisation roughly preserves the early state of ethnic and
racial differentiation in the period of Mesolithic colonisations. This means
that original ethnicities still maintain approximate contours of their
prehistoric diffusion and their tribal assortment has not yet been wiped out
by fusions into contact pseudo-families. As compared to ethnological
taxonomy, however, Amerindian anthropological classification is more burdened
by excessive areal generalisations. Since the principal prerequisite of
typological coordination insists on rough structural agreement between
racial, ethnic, archaeological and linguistic categories, their mutual
divergences may be removed by comparison, calibration and equalising. Reasons
for revisiting the traditional American anthropological taxonomy (Maps 18,
19) point out that there exist too many large imprecise racial categories
that do not fit their respective parallels in tribal units, ethnic traditions
and archaeological cultures.
The second direction of rectification
recommends amendment by the systematic comparison of Eurasian, Siberian and
Amerindian races. American phenotypes cannot be treated as brand-new formations
and have to be estimated as mutations of definite Siberian predecessors.
Human races were not created a few centuries ago but were moulded as early as
in the Lower Palaeolithic. Monogenetic theories may
object that Peruvian Andids with strong and large thorax arose owing to rare
air and high altitudes in the Andean mountains but climatic substantiation
pertains to secondary reasons of racial transmutations. Primary causes have
to be sought in the African and Euroasian genetic heritage and its subsequent
haphazard misalliances in the New World. Almost all
Amerindian races are mutants of the Old World genetic
prototypes, so their anthropometric measurements manifest shifts towards the
average values of the dominant Ugric, Algonquian and Andean standard. That
implies conclusion that their genetic parameters underwent a sort of
‘Ugrisation’ and distortion toward the Algonquian, Olmec and Quechuan median.
Such racial contamination made Athapaskan, Californian and Arawakan
Amero-Lappids become invisible because their stature is less short-sized,
their crania less brachycephalous and their nasal profile less concave than
their Siberian average standards. Another result is that their legs are less
short and their arms are not so long as might be expected. On the other hand,
owing to relative isolation, the rates of their characteristic blood group A
dramatically increased. In the Athabaskans, Blackfoot and Indian Bloods they
rose to 80 per cent, which are the highest values in the world. Yet similar
assimilative effects affected also all Amerindian minority races.
A simple cure for recovering from the
ailments in the nomenclature of classic anthropology is to adopt a binomial
and trinomial taxonomy proposed in Table 12. It compares general Eurasian
labels in its middle column with Eickstedt’s and Biasutti’s Amerocentrist
coinage.
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Egon Eickstedt
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Renato Biasutti
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Revised taxonomy
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Ethnos
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Ecotypes
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Eskimide
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Eschimidi
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Proto-Turanids
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Eskimos/Inuits
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Seal-hunters
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Pazifide
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Columbidi
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Amero-Lappids
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Athapaskans
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Omnivores
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Planide, Silvide
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Planidi
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Amero-Ugrids
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Algonquins
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Mummifiers
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Appalacide, Silvide
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Appalacidi
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Amero-Europids
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Iroquois
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Agricolists
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Pueblide, Zentralide
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Pueblo-Andidi
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Amero-Oasids
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Pueblans
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Oasids
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Margide
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Sonoridi
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Amero-Tungids
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Uto-Aztecans
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Lacustrines
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Isthmide, Zentralide
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Istmidi
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Amero-Elamitids
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Mayas
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Agricolist
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Andide (Peru)
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Pueblo-Andidi
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Latino-Ugrids
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Quechua, Aymara
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Mummifiers
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Brasilide
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Amazzonidi
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Latino-Melanids
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Tupí-Guaraní
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Agricolists
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Lagide
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Lagidi
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Latino-Littoralids
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Gê,
Kayapó
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Littoralists
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Patagonitide
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Pampidi
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Latino-Uralids
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Tehuelche
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Pastoralists
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Huarpide
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Fuegidi
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Latino-Littoralids
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Aracaunians
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Littoralists
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Fuegide
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Fuegidi
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Latino-Littoralids
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Yaghans, Fuegans
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Littoralists
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Table 12. Amerindian races compared and revisited
Convenient taxa should consist
of two or three parts, an individual specification, a classificatory base for
determining the categorical standing in the general taxonomic systematics and
occasionally also reference to historical dating. For instance, the following
three formulas might stand for different generations of Amerindan Lappids,
who left an undeniable imprint on the peopling of the New World:
Athapaskan Amero-Lappids
(200 AD),
Californian Hupa
Amero-Lappids (200 AD),
Arawak Latino-Lappids (9,500 BC).
The best solution is offered by pursuing
chains of typological parallels along ancient routes of ethnic diffusion.
This method was successfully applied by the Trubetzkoy’s model of Kettentheorie
oriented to searching for long-range comparisons immune to contact loanword
influences. This method appreciates structural similarities more than
accidental lexical loans. It refuses Wellentheorie’s efforts to view
tribal territories as large concentric republics and regards them as
octopuses, whose radial tentacles jut out into all directions (Table 13). The
arrow symbol → denotes
descent and geographic succession along migration routes. The prefix SE1-
designates the first route in the southeast direction.
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Amero-Ugrids
→ Andids + Mixtecs +
Algonquians (megafauna hunting, wigwam beehive-tents,
mummification, megalithic burial mounds)
Quechuan Amero-Ugrids
(immigration 11,500 BC, Folson culture)
Andids: Olmec → Mixtec → Quechua
→ Inga → Aymara
Algonquian Amero-Ugrids
(Folsom culture 9,000 BC, buffalo-hunters, wigwams, fluted leaf-shaped
projectiles, tall mesocephals with hooked noses)
SE1-Amero-Ugrids: Mesquakie-Sauk Cree → Micmac → Massachuset
→ Narraganset → Mahican →
Mixtec → Delaware
→ Powhatan
SE2-Amero-Ugrids: Ojibway →
Winnebago → Illinois
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|
Amero-Tungids → Salish
+ Uto-Aztecans + Uros
Salish
Amero-Tungids: → Bella Coola → Kwakiutl
→ Nootka
→ Salish
Uto-Aztecan Amero-Tungids
(nomadic fishermen, lacustrine lake-dwellers, pole-dwellings, tepee
huts, acorn-eating, ABO group B, Y-hg C2, C2b):
SW1-Amero-Tungids: Paiute → Pima
SW2-Amero-Tungids: Shoshoni → Ute → Hopi → Comanche → Luiseño-Cahuilla → Tepehuan → Pagago
→ Aztecans → Uru
people (on raft-dwellings of Titicaca Lake)
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Amero-Lappids → Athapaskans + Arawakans + Maipureans
Arawakan and Maipurean Amero-Lappids (immigration
about 9,500 BC, the Negrito with blowing pipes and poisoned arrows, short
stature, brachycephaly, cremation burials, semidugouts, lean-tos):
SW2-Amero-Lappids (immigration from 200 AD to 1500
CE, short stature, brachycephaly, saunas, sweathouses, pithouses,
semidugouts, zemlyankas, cremation burials, ABO group A, men’s caps,
women’s kerchief): Athapascan → Blackfeet → Atsina → Kalispel → Crow →
Apache → Navajo
SW1-Amero-Lappids (Na-Dene):
Chilkotin → Athapascan →
Hupa (California)
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Amero-Turanids
→ Eskimids → Cree → Floridian
Seminole → Caribs
NE-Amero-Turanids (marine-mammal hunters, fishermen,
rock shelters, rock overhangs, rock art, microblades, small tool tradition,
Clovis projectiles, Y-hg R1-M173, circumcision): Eskimids → Inuit
SE-Amero-Turanids (bowmen, fishermen, pirates,
Y-hg R1-M173, circumcision, loin-cloth):
SW1: Cree →
Illinois → Seminole (Florida) → Caribs; SW2: Hohokam
→ Tarahumara →
Chumash
|
|
Amero-Elamitoids
(Anasazi basket-makers, 12,000 BC, Puebloans, ergative Mayan
languages)
Mesa Verde → Ancestral Pueblo →
Hohokam → Mogollon → Mayan language family (Mexico)
|
|
Columbian Amero-Literalids
(Pacific
beachcombers and shellfish-eaters): Aleutians – Tsimshian → ( ¯ Haida) → Tlingit (matrilineal kinship, collective
longhouses from planks, collective feasts)
Amero-Literalids → Lagids (Macro-Gê) + Huarpids
(Chile) + Fuegids (Tierra del Fuego)
|
|
American Palaeo-Negrids (chamaerrhine
dolichocephals with darker skin and wavy hair, platyrhinia and broad nose profile with nasal indices from 87.0 to 91.9.high,
barebreasted women, fringed grass aprons, wearing
water vessels on the top of the head, pebble choppers, prenasalised stops mb-,
nd-, ng-)
S-Palaeo-Negrids: Cocopa →
Ngbere → Tupí → Guaraní
Mbya
|
Table 13. Migration
routes of Amerindian races
Table 13 recommends to divide Amerindian
varieties into groups of (a) Ugroid buffalo-hunters with cupolar wigwam
tents, (b) Tungusoid fishers and deer-hunters with tepee constructions and
acorn-eating subsistence, (c) Europoid Littoralids, shellfish eaters and
beachcombers living in longhouses on seaside sand dunes, (d) short-sized
brachycephalous Lappids with cremation burials, sauna sweathouses and
mushroom poisoning alchemy, (e) Floridan and Caribean Turanids, who wore
loin-cloths and practiced piracy, club-throwing and circumcision, (f)
dolichocephalous Elamitoid Pueblan basket-makers with b-plurals and
flat-roofed labyrinth houses out of clay, (g) dolichocephalous and
platyrrhine Amazonian Palaeo-Negrids with pebble-stone choppers and
agricultural dispositions.
Eskimids. The Eskimids
show mixed Ugroid (copular igloos dwellings, Palaeo-Siberian language
structures) and Turcoid traits (microblade small-tool tradition, Mongolian
epicanthus and lid folds, protruding cheekbones, shorter figure and limbs).
They are separated from Amerindians as Palaeo-Siberians but may be associated
with the archaic American Clovis culture. Their Palaeo-Siberian birth is
probable but it should deny their departure from Greenland and Scandinavia. They may have
descended from the Mesolithic seal-hunters ranging along the northern
Norwegian coastlines. Their earliest ancestors probably stemmed from the
Mesolithic Komsa culture (10,000 BC), whose people lived on hunting the seal,
walruses and other marine mammals. The Komsa seal-hunters exhibited a hybrid
Scandinavian composition from mesocephalous microlith-manufacturers with the
Y-haplogroup R*-M173 and Europoid dolichocephalous axe-tool makers. The
latter were beachcombers prevailing in the Fosna-Hensbacka cultural group akin
to Goths. This hypothesis may explain the prevailing distribution of the
Eskimo in the eastern arctic zone in the vicinity of Greenland and Iceland and the high
occurrence of Europoid dolichocephals in this geographic area. This racial
strain is manifested by very low cephalic indices detected in the arctic
Eskimos (Greenland Eskimo 78.1. Copper Eskimo 77.6, Northern Alaska Eskimo 78.0).
The ethnonymy of the Eskimo is derived from the Algonquin Montagnais
expression ayas̆kimew that means ‘a person who laces a snowshoe’.
Another frequent name is Inuit, whose meaning in Eskimo is ‘man’. The current
theories reckon with origins from the common Eskimo-Aleut (Eskimaleut)
family. Its genuine core consisted of Eskimo and Aleutian seal-hunters, who
spread all over arctic area about 10,000 BC. They spread the Arctic
Small-Tool Tradition remarkable for harpoons, small microblade cores and
seal-oil lamps. The majority of Aleutians are Eskimoids but their eastern faction
consists of Littoralids gathering shellfish and other seafood. This
population infiltrated also among the Pacifids of British Columbia and
represented the lineage of seaside beachcombers related to the people of the
Japanese Jomon culture. Their use of textile plant-woven materials differed
from the leather clothing and seal hides employed by Eskimoid Aleutians.
The most acceptable conclusion is that the Eskimo do not form a
homogeneous nationality but a multi-ethnic geographic domain, where the
decisive role was played by the Palaeo-Siberian tribes of Miutut and Eskimo
with domed igloo dwellings houses. Their populations were divided into
several generations of colonists and infiltrated by several heterogeneous
adstrata.
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1
1a
1b
1c
|
Palaeo-Siberian Ugro-Scythoids, who were common ancestors of
Ugro-Scythoids and Uralids
Eskimo Inuits descending from the Icelandic Thule culture that
colonised also Greenland (200 BC), they lived in archaic dome-shaped whalebone
houses
Eskimo Miute tribes with domed beehives and horizontal entrance
corridors
Eskimo-Scythoids with domed snow igloo shelters, descendance from
the Dorset culture (500 BC)
|
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2
2a
2b
|
Turanids and Turcoid seal-hunters with
mesocephalic skulls and the arctic small-tool cultures
Han-Kutchin Palaeo-Turanids with rock shelters
and the Y-haplogroup R*-M173 (13,500 BC)
Kaska Turanids with conico-cylindrical
huts, breechcloths, turbans and circumcision, predecessors
of ‘Five Southeastern Civilised tribes’
(Seminole, Natchez, Kuchi, Cherokee, Creek,
Shawnee)
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3
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Tungusoid
fishers with mesocephalic skulls and tepee dwellings (Dene-Dena, Tanaina,
Tlingit, Tlicho)
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4
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Aleutian Pre-Europoid Littoralids with notably dolichocephalic skulls
and rectangular plank houses,
(Haida, Bella
Coola, Chinook, Tsimshian and the Coast
Salish tribes, partly also Tlingit)
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Table 14. The disambiguation of
Amerindian Eskimos
Pacifids. Racial incongruity is observed
also in the seemingly compact category of Pacifids inhabiting the western
coasts of North America. There are two strains
competing, the totemistic patrilineal tribes of Tungusoid fishers and the
matrilineal tribes of Europoid littoral beachcombers. The former are
represented by Bella Coola, Salish and Kwakiutl, who lived in tepee
constructions out of wooden planks. Their abodes were characterised as
conical tepee tents with two or four layers of sewed mat woven from the tule
plant. The first Europeans called Salish or Salis tribes ‘flatheads’ because
they applied cranial deformation. They had a federation with Kootenai people and in addition to fishing they
hunted deer. These groups must have pertained to the Siberian Tungusic
peoples with tepee tents and the male haplogroup C. Yet their rates of C are
lower than it may be expected because they were overpowered by the Algonquian
haplotype Q. Nevertheless, their haplogroup C held the third position among
the most frequent Amerindian genotypes.
Littoral beachcombers. The Europoid
faction of Pacifids is illustrated by the Haida, Kootenai,
Tsimshian or Tlingit, who adopted the life-style of littoral beachcombers and
observed the rules of matrilineal kinship. They had a two-moiety matrilinear kinship system, where women
enjoyed high social respect. Also the Tlingit had a sort of matrilineal
kinship, their society was divided into two moieties, one adored the
Raven and the other deified the Eagle. Tsimshian and Haida tribes cherished
fraternal family spirit since they dwelt in collective longhouses and
organised public social meetings. Their tribal solidarity was tightened by
the custom of giving collective feasts called potlatch and yaawk. These social events were held on the
occasion of deaths, burials and births.
The Europoid Pacifids may be classified as a continuation of Aleutian
Littoralids on the American continent. They were described as beachcombers since
they relied on littoral seafood diet and ate nothing but ‘beach food’. The Tsimshians dwelt in
large rectangular longhouses, which were built from cedar posts and
logs. Their racial phenotypes differed a lot from their Tungusoid neighbours
by lack of epicanthus and other Mongolian features. They found allies in the
Wakashan group comprising the Kwakiutl/Kwakwala, Haisla and Anishinabe ethnicities. This group inhabited seaside
regions and lived on fishing or catching octopuses.
Uto-Aztecan Tungids. The Tungusoid
lineage in the Pacifids continued travels in the southward direction and
founded plantations in the regions of northern California and Mexico. It belonged to
the Uto-Aztecan family descending from the Northwest Californian culture of
Post Pattern Lake-Dwellers (11,000 BC – 7,000 BC), which was discovered by Chester C. Post in 1938. It actually constituted a part of Stephen
Bedwell’s Western Pluvial Lakes
Tradition,
centred around Clear Lake and Borax Lake. Archaeologists associate them with Pomo,
Hokan, Yuki and Wappo peoples. Its survivors
and close cognates were probably the Californian tribes of Miwok,
Mi'kwak, Maidu, who dwelt in conical tepee tents. The Miwok pertained to
totemistic tribes of northern California and spoke Utian languages. They built
tepee constructions made out of wooden planks. The Californian Maidu lived in
forests of oak-trees because their staple diet was based on acorns. The
customs of acorn-eating was reported by Pausanias among their Greek Pelasgian ancestors
and was peculiar to all most eastern Tungusoid populations. Oak acorns were
gathered by women, shelled, ground and eaten in mush.
Amero-Turanids. The
first colonists of the Americas
stemmed from the archaic tribe of Turanids with the male Y-haplogroup R*-M173.
The typical products of their art industry were microblades, rock paintings and dwellings under rock
overhangs. Early rock shelters were discovered at the sites of Toca da
Tira Peia (Brasil, 22,000 BP) and Pedra
Furada (Brasil, 11,000 BP). The Argentinian
site Cueva de las Manos (13,000 BP) was called ‘Cave of Hands’
and exhibited the typical imprints of human phalanges. Such ritual motifs
were very common to rock painting of Azilians in France or Australian
boomerang-throwers with the Y-haplotype R*-M173. They illustrated cultural
patterns compatible with the Clovis
culture (13,500 BP) and traditions of the Eskimo sea-mammal hunters. Their Clovis industry production
consisted of two parts, one comprised fluted spear points suitable for
killing bisons, the other focused on manufacturing microblades used for
killing small game. This dichotomy documented two ethnic elements in the
hybrid constitution of Mesolithic seal-hunters. It certified their probable
descent from the Norwegian Komsa complex (10,000 BC). One component in the
Komsa and Clovis complex was due to fishers with microblades and the other to
beehive-dwellers hunting the buffalo with leaf-shaped spear points. The
invasion of the Clovis incomers was followed by the advent of Folsom megafauna-hunters
(9,000 BC) of pure Algonquian extraction.
The characteristic habits of
all Turcoid tribes were circumcision, rock paintings, rock shelters,
rock-hewn caves and cliff-dwellings. Their distribution is dispersed all over
both Americas since they tended to sponge on alien agricultural civilisations. In
Mesa Verde, Hohokam and Ancestral Pueblo their rock-overhands sheltered
multi-roomed and flat-roofed houses of Puebloans and created a new
architectural design of what we mean by Ameridian cliff-dwellings. The
practices of circumcision were witnessed in the upper caste of most Andean
civilisations from Mexico
to Peru. They were common among the Missouri Mandans and on the shores of Lake Superior inhabited by
the Chippewa Indians and the Ojibwe people.
Cliff-dwellers. A
special chapter in Amerindian anthropology is envisaged in cliff-dwellers,
who built miniatures of pueblos under steep rock overhangs
and artificial rock-hewn caves. Their famous exhibits are evidenced in
Manitou cliff dwellings in Colorado Springs, the Cliff Palace in Mesa Verde, Montezuma Castle and Canyon de
Chelly in Arizona. Their
architecture seems to be associated with Brazilian sites of rock shelters
with mummified corpses. They were found as early as in the Brazilian localities
of Toca da Tira Peia (22,000 BP) and Pedra Furada. They
showed hybrid composition typical of the three Amerindian races: besides
Pueblids of Elamitoid cultural morphology it comprised elements of Ugroid
mound-builders and the Proto-Turcoid small-tool tradition with the archaic
Y-haplogroup R*-M173. Their lineage was imported to America
by its dominant race of Ugroid mummifiers with the Y-haplotype Q-M242. Its
origin was derived from the Koryak, Ket, Mansi-Khanty and Ugrian people in
northeastern Siberia. Mutual contact between the Eskimids, Pueblids and Andids probably
resulted in the rise of a new Y-type Q-M3 peculiar only to the upper classes
of Andean civilisations. The new subtype of Q explains why Christopher
Columbus could observe the practices of circumcision in the Mayas, Aztecs and
Inkas.
Caribbean pirates. The populations of Caribs were feared amidst neighbours as dangerous
fishers, pirates and cannibals. Piratic assaults were practiced only by the
western tribes of Ciboney Taino on Cuba
and their mainland cognates Kuiva and Cuiba. The neutral central position was
held by the ethnicity of Taino fishers in Haiti.
They lived on fish and seafaring trade without launching aggressive attacks
on peaceful neighbours.
Antilleans. Such ill-repute was
not attached to the eastern tribes of Iñera/Ignera and Kalina. They
belonged to the Antilleans, who were akin to the elfin short-sized Arawak
people. Their stature was less than 157 cm and their heads showed brachycephous indices higher than 83. The Isles
of Antilles had a Pre-Columbian etymology known among native aborigines as Antilia.
Its inhabitants were classed as Caribs divided between the Island
Caribs, known as the Kalinago, and Mainland Caribs headed by the
tribes of Kalina.
Arawakans. About
9500 BC the New World was shattered by two mainstreams of dwarfish cremators. The left
stream was conducted by Antilleans, who invaded the mainland as Arawaks. They
created the dominant ethnic layer in northern Venezuela.
The second branch chose the right isthmic route and rushed southward as
Maipureans. Their hosts ranged as far as Bolivia
and Uruguay. Their advent can be registered by anthropological measurements
revealing short-statured minorities in the statistic census of Honduras,
Nicaragua and Panama.
One of the Maipurean languages is called Chiquitano because its
speakers were nicknamed as Chiquitos. This
ethnic term derived from the Spanish etymology chiquitos, ‘little ones’. They imported cremations, tonal languages, blowguns and poisoned
arrows.
Amero-Lappids. Arawak
tribes are one of neglected Ameriandian races, who gather honey and hunt
birds by shooting poisoned arrows from blowing-pipes. This mode of
subsistence is now peculiar only to the dwarfish Negrito in Southeast Asia. Ancient
historians, however, described similar customs of poisoning projectile heads
among Celtic Lapponoids in western Europe. They probably came from Beringia
about 9,500 BC but it is possible to speculate also about their Oceanic
diaspora in the Pacific. Polynesian legends tell stories about the dwarfish
forest people, who were allegedly less tall than 60 cm. In Hawaii they were known as menahune and
on Tahiti as manahune. Their cranial indices align them as
brachycephalous types amounting to rates higher than 83. Their tribal hero
was Ha'alulu, a smart elf residing close to Halekala Crater.
Athabaskids.
Short-sized brachycephals appeared in America in two
waves. The first colonisation took place about 9,500 BC and brought Arawakan
blowgun hunters with poisoned arrows. The second wave was incited by hosts of
Athabaskan wanderers around 200 AD. Athabaskan languages belong to the
Na-Dene group and they betray Sinoid roots by using reduplication,
palatalisation and tonal accents. Their Old World predecessors
were Sinids, Ainus and Chukchees. They had to get accustomed to cold boreal
climate and so lived in subterranean semidugouts called zemlyankas.
Other cultural markers included saunas, sweathouses, mushrooming, poisoning
alchemy and high rates of the blood group A.
Pueblids. The first civilisations of Amerindian
plant-gatherers and preagriculturalists were imported by Brazilian Amazonids.
After their acculturation in the tropical rainforests of South America they were followed by the advent of Anasazi
Basket-Makers called Puebloans. They owe their names to the Spanish
catch-phrase pueblos, ‘people, folks’. Their hosts made for New Mexico and created village settlements of large
communities with preagriculturalist inclinations. Their architecture excelled
in constructing multi-roomed labyrinths without outer windows because they
vegetated in constant fear of inimical intruders. Their earthen clay houses
had entrance doors on the roof and were accessed on ladders or notched logs.
Over night these implements were removed out of reach of trespassers. Their
clansmen lived in endogamous two-moiety systems with matrilineal inheritance
and matrilocal marriage. The centre-point of their social life lay in the
subterranean hall called kiva. Communal religious rituals focused on
dancing adoring the Corn Maiden and supernatural spirits referred to as kachinas.
Most authors presupposed that they lived on catching rabbits and small
mammals but their subsistence must have been based on gathering vegetal food
such as wild maize and squash. They led a sedentary life and from 1500 BC
they took to their growing and purposeful agricultural cultivation.
Elamitoid Basket-Makers. The
Puebloan social, communal, religious, ritual and economic life rendered an
accomplished copy of cultural manners common to Elamitoid Caucasoids in South Asia. It worshipped martyrs, deities of
vegetation and the Corn Maiden as the symbol of love goddess similar to
Egyptian Isis or Mesopotamian goddesses Inanna and Ishtar. Their economic
mode is known as Picosa culture and Oshara tradition
and concentrated on desert oases living on dry farming and ingenious
irrigation. They did not produce pottery because they made do with basket-making
from herbal materials. The main distinguishing mark from their Algonquian
foes, who made wigwam tents and clothing out of leather and hides, was
textile material used for weaving bodywear, footwear and headwear. There
existed also definite language analogies peculiar to b-languages with
the Caucasian word-order, animate-inanimate gender and b-plurals.
Current accounts rely on their periodisation in five stages of the scale Basket-Makers I-V. Its author was Alfred V. Kidder, who dated the starting point to 8000 – 1500 BC. The earliest
prototypes of their houses were subterranean pit-houses common in colder
regions of the Far East, the Amur River basin and northeast Siberia.
The extent of Puebloan sites
is today reduced only to tribes of the Oasis
America tradition such as Zuñi, Hopi, Tiwa and Keresan tribes but originally the pithouse
settlements were united with the Mayan territories in Central and North
Mexico. These tribes discovered the secrets of tilling fields as early as
3500 BC and initiated their propagation to Mexico and Arizona. Its cultural centres lay in Mesa Verde in the north, the Ancestral
Pueblo in New Mexico, the Hohokam complex in Arizona and Mogollon tradition in the Chihuahua province of Mexico. The genuine and pure Puebloans
included only matrilineal societies with matrilocal marriage, who confessed
chthonic mythology deriving the world creation from underground divinities.
The northern tribes of Mesa Verde were also Puebloans but their architecture
was incorporated in the alien civilisations of militant cliff-dwellers, who
sought protection in rock-cut caves and rock overhangs. These Pueblans formed
only an Elamitoid matriarchal lower-class substratum subdued to the
patriarchal rule of the upper caste of the Ugro-Turcoid superstratum. Another
alien element was incorporated in the Tanoan family of tribes (Kiowa, Jemez,
Towa, Tiwa, Tewa). The first author, who noticed their cultural distinctions
from pure Puebloans with dry farming maize-growing economy was Fred Russell Eggan. He
was aware of their association with Uto-Aztecans representing the racial
stock of Tungids. They differed from Puebloans by patrilineal kinship, dualist cosmogony,
purification rituals and cosmogonic accounts of the underwater origins of the
terrestrial world.
Ugro-Scythoid Algonquinds. The genuine Ugrids arrived in the Americas as late as with the Folsom Complex
dating to 9000 BC. They were the first bison-hunters anticipating the
Algonquian nomadic life-style inherited by tribes in the Great Plains. Algonquians adopted nomadism in portable wigwam-tents and
continued their exploring expeditions as far as Tierra del
Fuego. Their twins were people of the Chinchorro culture (9,000 to 3,500 years BP),
who were remarkable for the burial practices of mummification. The
younger generations of their settlers passed from chasing animal trophies to
pastoralism and from herding mammals to herding humans as slave-holders. They
were not lordly supermen and Kulturträger but nomadic barbarians, who
sponged on the cultural flourish of the southern agricultural civilisations
of the Anasazi Basket-Makers.
Andids.
Renato Biasutti determined a special racial family of Pueblo-Andidi composed from Pueblids
(New Mexico) and Andids
inhabiting the Andean mountains. In both civilisations they formed only the
ruling military caste and upper-class superstratum with sovereigns
commemorated by megalithic monuments. Puebloan maize-cultivators served them
as a lower caste of plebeians, serfs or slaves. Their original ancestors were
Algonquian buffalo-hunters of Folsom provenience, who competed with Clovis colonists
and joined their hybrid alliances. They roamed as wild nomadic aborigines
living in portable wigwam tents, and so they cannot be celebrated as founders
of American advanced civilisations. It is much more appropriate to say that
they sponged on the agricultural breeding-ground of Pueblids. They invented
growing maize and squash in central Mexico about 1500
BC and around 1200 BC they imported its agrotechnogical skills to their
brotherly pueblo communities in New Mexico. The bloom
of their welfare attracted retinues of raiding intruders, who beat their home
defence and enslaved their commoners. This is how the dynasty of Olmecs
installed its Mexican kingdom (1300–400 BC) and the royal house of the Chavíns rehearsed
their invasion in Andean South America. Their Peruvian conquests reached the
peak of despocy in 1200-400 BC. Later the Mexican Zapotecs (400 BC – 1500 AD) attempted to imitate their
success in Monte Alban and Mixtla. The Nasca
dynasty founded a famous coastal culture and powerful empire between 400 BC
and 1000 AD.
Algonquian Planids. The race of
Andids must include also the northern variety of Planids embodied by
Algonquian buffalo-hunters. They belong to the same stock of
megafauna-hunters but their southern wing reached a more advanced Neolithic
stage of pastoralist herding, not to speak of the more advanced stage of
military and aristocratic caste in civilised states. The data of population
genetics ascribe high values of the paternal Q haplotype to Amerindian
beehive-dwellers and megalith-builders: Algonquian 33.5, Muscogean 75,
Cheyenne 61, Mixtec 93, Mixe–Zoque 100, Inga 78 per cent. Their chief
difference is that the northern Algonquian tribes maintained
the basal Y-haplotype Q-M242,
whereas the civilised southern Andids developed its special subtype Q-M3.
Appalachids. In the east of North America such restructuralisation of
social forces took place from approximately 800
AD to 1600 AD. The progress of civilisation was accelerated by the advances
in farming here, too. Reports of the rise of growing squash, sunflowers,
goosefoot and sump weed south of the Mississippi are
debatable but they may be ascribed to the Appalachians and peoples
of the Caddoan language family. All we know is that unexpected economic
prosperity attracted the attention of Algonquian raiders, who infiltrated
their villages with longhouses by copular wigwams with a slightly conical
top. The autochthonous farmers exhibited high indices of long-headed
dolichocephaly and cultivated burial customs of British ‘long barrows with
long skulls’. This is why R. Biasutti labelled them
as Pre-Europidi with conspicuous Europoid traits. Their joint
activities resulted in the monuments of the Mid-Atlantic mound-building Mississippi culture.
Amazonids.
An interesting relic of Palaeo-Negrids is discovered in the Tupí-Quaraní
tribes in the Amazonian river basin. The nasal indices of their nose profile
attest the chamaerrhine or platyrhine morphology with values ranging between
87.0 and 91.9. Their advent from the Old World was lined
with colonies of platyrhine dolichocephals, whose cranial indices were lower
than 78.9. Their chain was extended from British
Columbia to California, Costa Rica and Brazil. Their difference from North
American populations was described as follows: “the present Native Americans
tend to exhibit a cranial morphology similar to late and modern Northern
Asians (short and wide neurocrania; high, orthognatic and broad faces; and
relatively high and narrow orbits and noses), the earliest South Americans
tend to be more similar to present Australians, Melanesians, and Sub-Saharan
Africans (narrow and long neurocrania; prognatic, low faces; and relatively
low and broad orbits and noses.”
Their linguistic
determination is aided by the prenesalised phonemes ᵐb-, ⁿd-,ᵑɡ-
in Jibaro-Kandoshi, Tupí and Guraní Mbaya. Their residual vestiges
can be seen in the ng- [ŋ-] stop in Ngabere and the phonemes ngy [ɲ],
ng [ŋ], ngw [ŋʷ] in the Third Mesa Hopi or Mishongnovi Hopi
dialects of Hopi. Their hosts undoubtedly wandered
from Beringia and British Columbia but perceptible colonies were left behind
only in the Cocopa
tribe in Mexico, Ngabere/Ngäbere in Costa Rica and Emberá in Panama.
They managed to build to a new large and compact heartland only in the
Brazilian population of the Guaraní-Mbya, Guarayu,
Tupikin, Tupí and Tupieté.
Extract from Pavel Bělíček: The Differential Analysis
of the Wordwide Human Varieties, Prague 2018,
p. 52-72
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